In face-to-face oral communication, listening comprehension is closely integrated with speaking. Advances in information technology have narrowed the original fundamental distance between written and oral communication by allowing writing to simulate in many ways on-line face-to-face oral communication. The archetype of human communication is face-to-face oral interaction. Speaking and writing have similar functions but writing as a new cultural technology (production of texts) had a powerful impact on cognition, communication, schooling, societal and cultural development. All communities have speech but not all languages even now have writing, which emerged only a few thousand years ago. In evolutionary terms, speech predates writing.
Consequently, constructing tasks that elicit relevant evidence of comprehension is demanding. Listening and reading are also very complex processes. This can happen by overt verbal behaviour (speaking and writing) and/or non-verbal behaviour. Testing and assessing reading and listening comprehension pose many challenges in that they are internal processes and their assessment requires samples of external behaviour. Selection of other CEFR-related documents Learners as social agents in the classroom Transparency and coherence in the classroom The Council of Europe and Language education
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